Below, I provide a helpful summary of each of the ethical systems discussed in the book, with a keyword that will help you remember the core idea contained in each theory. I conclude with three overarching big ideas from the text.
A. Ethical relativism
Keyword: Adaptation
In this framework, “one person’s truth is another’s falsehood.” It suggests that moral laws cannot and should not be universalized because what we see as truth is based strictly on our social, cultural, political, economic, or religious standpoint. Instead, ethics must be adapted to differing cultures and contexts.
B. Ethical egoism
Keyword: Personalization
This theory says your highest and only moral allegiance is to your own self. Morality is approached purely on the basis of personal profit. Ethical egoists argues that this preoccupation with self ultimately and indirectly benefits society and that a concern for others, on the contrary, leads to negative consequences.
C. Behaviourism
Keyword: Socialization
This is not really an ethical system, but an argument against ethical systems. Behaviourism argues that we are the product of our social upbringing to the extent that our moral decisions are determined by how we were socialized. There is a cause and effect relationship between socialization and morality so focusing on personal moral actions of individuals in isolated situations (as ethics does) misses the target.
D. Evolutionary ethics
Keyword: Preservation
Evolutionary ethics situates morality in our biology. It suggests that human genes are driven to self-preservation and so over time, genetic mutations take place that instruct humans to act in ways that protect the species from destruction. These acts of biological self-preservation take on the form of moral, even altruistic, behaviors towards others of the same specifies.
E. Utilitarianism
Keyword: Adjudication
The principle of utility says moral choice should be based on a judgment between alternative actions, with preference given to the act that leads to the greatest happiness for the most people. The choice is based on what we determine to be the anticipated future consequences of the options available to us. The end justifies the means so a wrong act with a good outcomes may be justified.
F. Categorical Imperative
Keyword: Universalization
According to Kant, you can test right or wrong actions by imagining them as universal laws. If everyone everywhere is compelled by a binding law to follow the same action or choice, will you be okay with this and will it make sense? If you can still answer yes, then go ahead – it’s your moral duty. Emphasis in on the rightness or wrongness of the action itself, never the consequences.
G. Virtue Ethics
Keyword: Education
The idea is that through moral education -- or character training -- you can develop certain virtues such as courage, wisdom, and, especially for Christians, love. These will then instinctively guide your moral choices. The goal is that moral education, which for Christians can take the form of discipleship and Bible teaching, will transform you into a good person, which in turn will lead consistently to good or virtuous practices.
H. Narrative Ethics
Keyword: Narration
This is an extension of virtue ethics, but this approach sees story as the primary tool for teaching virtuous living. That’s because stories are much more memorable and engaging that abstract concepts. For Christians, the Bible serves as our grand moral “story” and we can develop the character for right moral choices by being a part of a community that believes in this narrative.
I. Situation Ethics
Keyword: Situation
Based loosely on the Christian principle of Agape or divine love, situation ethicists hold that our goal as moral actors should be to maximise love, even if this violates other laws or moral prescriptions. We are to approach ethics on a situation-by-situation basis and if there is a conflict in any situation between rules or laws and loving action, we must always chose loving action over the rules/laws.
J. Natural Law Theory
Keyword: Naturalization
The Natural Law Theory of Aquinas states that all people, by virtue of their common human nature, share a God-derived awareness of fundamental right and wrong. This explains the basic sense of right and wrong common in cultures around the world. Aquinas "naturalizes" morality and to be morally good, we must obey the natural laws that we discover through reason and also follow its expression in social conventions and legal codes. Christians go further by obeying divine law, which is only received by special revelation.
K. Divine Command Theory
Keyword: Scripturalization
This framework says look in the Scriptures if you want to know what is good and obediently follow the commands you find there. Forget about trying to figure out by yourself what is morally right or wrong, because your understanding is limited. If God says something is right or wrong, it is, regardless of what your own moral logic tells you. Trust and obey for there’s no other way.
Below are my three overarching big ideas from the Wilkens text:
1. Ethical decision-making is complex
We may all use bumper sticker catch phrases that try to capture the rationale for our ethical choices, but such glib barely scratch the surface of the moral dilemma we may be dealing with. Ethical decision making process is a complex process and we gain a lot by digging deeper into the rationale and implications of these ethical catch phrases. Through this we gain a better understanding of our own ethical decision making process or we may even find our approach unacceptable after we’ve explored its implications, especially from a Christian viewpoint.
2. Different ethical systems approach the moral task differently
There are several ethical systems available to use as we seek to navigate moral challenges. A good understanding of each of these systems and approaches makes us better moral thinkers. We may gravitate towards certain systems more than others, due to factors such as our Christian worldview. There can be significant differences between the systems and this is because of the different philosophical, sociological or theological assumptions on which they are built.
3. All systems have strengths and weaknesses (...the best system may be “yours”)
All systems have their appeals and blind spots. As Christians, some blind spots in certain systems may incline us towards a wholesale rejection of the entire framework. But we must be careful not to throw out the baby with the bath water. Most systems appear to have a handle on some truth, but they tend to then take that truth to its extreme. Self-preservation can instruct moral action, but it is not the end-all-be-all of ethics, as ethical egoism suggests. We need to be flexible in our application of moral principles, but need not adopt an avowed reed-mentality as ethical relativism suggests. As Christians, love is key in all our moral engagements with others, but we don’t have to throw out every other demand of God to make love rule. The best ethical system may indeed be the one that’s not in the Wilkens text – the framework you create from the best principles in all the systems studied.
References
Wilkens, S. (2011). Beyond bumper stickers: An introduction to theories of right and wrong (2nd ed.). Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.
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